Figure 1. As most commercial REs use a liquid-type solution as an internal electrolyte, which can leak under various pressures and salinity conditions, periodic replacement and maintenance are necessary to retain the electrode performance Kim et al. Compared to the liquid-filled electrodes, gel-type internal electrolytes have numerous advantages. Various water-soluble polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol, methylcellulose, and HEC can be used as gel-type internal electrolytes owing to their viscous characteristics.
These play a key role in preventing electrolyte leakage from the internal to external electrodes. Among these polymers, HEC is a nonionic cellulose, the aqueous solutions of which are stable at pH 2—12 with the suitable solution viscosities and gelling states at normal temperatures. HEC also exhibits a high salt tolerance and long-term stability over a wide pH range 3.
For this reason, HEC can be applied to gel-type internal electrolytes for application in coastal structures. Figure 2A shows the relationship between the HEC content, viscosity, and ion conductivity. The results reveal that the viscosity of each electrolyte increases upon the addition of HEC, and a maximum value is obtained at 8 wt.
In contrast, the ion conductivity of the electrolyte decreases with an increase in the HEC content because of the limitation of ion mobilities.
The time dependency of ion conductivity for the as-synthesized gel-type electrolytes is shown in Figure 2B. The ion conductivities of all internal electrolytes with different HEC contents stabilize after initial measurements 1—3 days , except with high HEC contents 12 and 15 wt.
The gel-type electrolyte with 5 wt. Based on these results, the electrolyte with 5 wt. Figure 2C shows the images of the gel-type internal electrolyte, acquired 3 s after electrolyte synthesis.
The data show that gelling progresses with an increase in the HEC content. In particular, ideal gelling characteristics are observed with 12 and 15 wt. The membrane is a critical part of the electrode. It not only ensures the transmission of electrolyte but also decreases it and determines the lifetime of the electrode.
The small particle size of DCM with a dense structure can minimize the leakage of internal electrolyte from the electrode, which can lead to the stability of the electrode in RC structures. Additionally, the morphology of VGM shows a randomly stacked plate-type structure with large pore sizes, which leads to the leakage of the internal electrolyte.
Figure 3c shows the time-dependent leakage of the internal electrolyte from the PVC housing with four types of membranes. After 1 month, electrolyte leakage is observed in all membranes, which decreases with an increase in the ceramic content. For this process, the WE terminal of the potentiostat was connected to the Pt-mesh and the CE terminal was connected to the Ag wire. In this case, the immersion process after GP is important for the formation of the AgCl layer on the Ag wire surface.
The suggested formation mechanism of the AgCl layer on the Ag wire during GP and immersion is described by reactions 1 and 2. Figure 2. Relationship between A hydroxyethyl cellulose HEC; wt. Figure 3. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy FE-SEM images of two types of membranes: a Vycor glass membrane and b as-synthesized diatomite ceramic membrane.
When a current pulse is applied, chlorine Cl 2 is generated on the Pt-mesh anode and it reacts with water, resulting in the formation of a mixture of hypochlorous acid HOCl and HCl. After GP, the immersion process is immediately carried out in the same electrolyte without applying a current pulse. As a result, the number and sizes of the as-synthesized AgCl particles, as well as the chloride content on the surface of the Ag wire, increase with an increase in immersion time.
The boundaries between AgCl particles and pore channels through the layer, known as micro-channels, are the main pathways for the transport of ions within the AgCl layer. As the AgCl layer thickness increases, the ion transport becomes limited due to micro-channel confinement Pemberton and Girand, ; Neary and Parkin, ; Pargar et al.
For this reason, it is important to optimize the applied current density and treatment time during anodization. Additionally, the immersion time is a more important parameter in the synthesis of AgCl layer on Ag wire in comparison to the current density and GP time.
The time periods for each applied current pulse and no-pulse were fixed at 5 and 20 s, respectively. For an immersion time of 1 s, the initial potential difference before applying the current pulse is ca. Furthermore, when the current pulse is applied, the initial potential difference for an immersion time of 1 s is higher and shows a non-stable sensing signal as compared to those observed with other conditions.
An immersion time of s shows a lower potential difference than those obtained with 1, 60, and 90 s. As the immersion time increases, the AgCl content on Ag wire increases, while the exposed Ag surface decreases. The diffraction peaks at The peaks at The two peaks at The latter two peaks are attributed to the organic contamination absorbed on the surface of the Ag wire, whereas the first peak located at a low binding energy is associated with Ag-O Figure 7D Wang et al.
The elemental atomic percentages derived from the XPS survey spectra are also shown in Table 1. These data are in good agreement with the EDS data shown in Figure 4d. Figure 9B shows the magnification of the fifth data set enclosed in red rectangle in Figure 9A.
The potential difference of the sensor was measured as a function of time over a period of 60 days at 5-day intervals using mM KCl solution Figure Schematic and real images of the wireless sensing system are shown in Figures 11 , 12a,b , respectively. Figure 4. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy FE-SEM images and elemental compositions of the AgCl-coated Ag wire with different immersion times: a 1 s, b 60 s, c 90 s, and d s. Figure 5. Potential difference of the chloride ion sensor as a function of immersion time.
The electrolyte comprises mM KCl and 0. Figure 6. Figure 7. Table 1. Figure 8. The applied current pulse for chloride sensing is fixed at 1 mA, and the electrolyte comprises mM KCl and 0. Figure 9. C Linear fitting of the chloride ion sensor potential with the experimental data.
The applied current pulse is fixed at 1 mA. Figure Long-term stability of the chloride ion sensor in the electrolyte comprising mM KCl and 0. Schematic of the wireless chloride ion sensing system based on Arduino Uno. Both the DCM and the gel-type electrolyte played essential roles in preventing electrolyte leakage from the ion-selective electrode.
A linearity of 0. SK and GP conducted the most experiment and wrote the paper. K-HL made Arduino set-up. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Video S1. The movie of wireless chloride ion sensing based on Arduino Uno. Abbas, Y. University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands. PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. A chronopotentiometric approach for measuring chloride ion concentration. B , — Angst, U. Spatial variability of chloride in concrete within homogeneously exposed areas. Bard, A. Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications, New York: Willey, 2nd ed.
Bassil, A. Concrete crack monitoring using a novel strain transfer model for distributed fiber optics sensors. Sensors Corva, D. Vaping Study Guide 3 cards. Propylene Glycol. Q: Is AgCl a strong electrolyte Write your answer Related questions. Is silver chloride a strong electrolyte? Is AgCl a strong or weak electrolyte?
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